What does it mean when I have Ammonia?

Mature tanks should have readings of 0ppm Ammonia, meaning that any higher is an indication of something wrong in the aquarium. Any level of Ammonia may cause permanent damage to fish and may even cause death at high enough levels. Ammonia can mean one of a few things:

- Your tank is cycling. This means that your filter and tank is new and your filter bacteria need to grow and colonize in order to perform the Nitrification process/the "cycle". You can read about the cycling process here.

- Your tank is going through a Mini-Cycle. This means that the filter bacteria in a mature tank have somehow been interrupted and must re-colonize your filter media. Mini-Cycles can occur for several reasons which you can read below under the question "What is a Mini-Cycle?".

- Your bioload is too high. This means that your filter is too small, and your stocking levels (the amount of fish in your tank) are too high, meaning that the fish are producing more waste than your filter can handle. This can be solved by either reducing your stocking levels, or increasing your filtration (by adding a second filter, or upgrading your first filter).

- There has been a sudden increase in waste. This could mean that you have had a fish die, plants rot or a mass algae die-off (through eg products such as Algaecides), creating more waste than your filter bacteria can handle. This may last for a few days while your bacteria process the sudden increase in Ammonia.

How do I deal with Ammonia?

Ammonia is best dealt with:

- Patience

- Daily water changes. These are a must, especially in a fish-in cycling process. Daily water changes will help to dilute your Ammonia levels to reduce the amount toxic to your fish.

- Increasing filter size if needed.

- A neutralizer such as Seachem's Prime can be used to detoxify Ammonia for up to 24 hours. This Ammonia can still be processed by the filter bacteria, but the Prime makes it safe for fish. Prime however is only a temporary solution, and Ammonia problems must be dealt with through other methods long-term.

- Plants (emersed and submerged) both readily consume Ammonia, Nitrites and Nitrates, and may be useful to prevent problems with Ammonia.

What does it mean when I have Nitrites?

Nitrites should also read 0ppm in a mature aquarium, as like Ammonia they are heavily toxic. The reasons for Nitrites occurring tend to be the same for Ammonia, and the same actions should be taken to reduce them.

What is a Mini-Cycle?

A Mini-Cycle is when the filter bacteria in a mature tank have somehow been interrupted. This often leads to an Ammonia or Nitrite spike which make last for up to 1-2 weeks. Mini-cycles can occur for various reasons:

- Too much of the filter has been cleaned out. If too much of the filter is cleaned, a large portion of the beneficial bacteria in it will be killed/removed, meaning that they must recolonize in order to perform their job sufficiently. This is a very common reason for mini-cycles.

- The filter has been left off for too long. If, for example, during a power cut the filter is turned off for over around 8 hours, the bacteria will start to die and will need to recolonize when the filter is turned back on and running. Dead bacteria will also create waste, leading to a sudden increase in Ammonia.

- The filter media has been left to dry. The filter bacteria require water in order to live, so will die if the filter media dries out.

-The substrate has been changed.Sand and gravel, like filter media, also carry beneficial bacteria. Although this doesn't affect all tanks, some tanks may experience an Ammonia spike if all or a large portion of the substrate has been changed at once.

- The filter has been clogged. Filter bacteria are Gram Positive and Aerobic. Being Aerobic they require oxygen in order to survive - when the filter is clogged, it may cause a decrease in the beneficial bacteria due to it becoming an Anaerobic environment.

- The water was not dechlorinated. In waters in which Chlorine and Chloramines are present, a dechlorinator is necessary in order to detoxify and remove these from the aquarium. While this also happens naturally, it happens too slowly and the Chlorines and Chloramines may kill beneficial bacteria. We recommend Seachem's Prime for this reason. After a storm or disaster in an area, the Local Council may add extra Chlorine to the water to keep it safe for drinking, so it is especially important to dechlorinate water when this occurs.

- The Salinity or Specific Gravity has been increased too quickly. Adding too much salt to a freshwater tank can kill of beneficial bacteria.

- A medication has been used that kills bacteria. Medications such as Antibiotics, Methylene Blue, Malachite Green, Formalin and Acriflavine may "knock back" or kill filter bacteria.

When a mini-cycle occurs, the best steps are those recommended for when Ammonia is present. Water changes and a detoxifier are a must while your filter bacteria recolonize and regrow to big enough numbers to perform the cycle normally.

How much, how often and why should I clean my filter?

The main reason for cleaning filter media is to clean out debris that has built up in the Mechanical media. The Biological media rarely needs cleaning (typically only when clogging occurs), although Chemical media may be cleaned, removed or reactivated if necessary. Some feel it's best to clean out the Mechanical media to a routine such as once monthly, others choose to clean when they notice a drop in flow rate. Along with the rule of cleaning only Mechanical media, the general rule is to only clean or replace 25% of the total filter media, as these rules are both to prevent the removal/killing of too much beneficial bacteria at once. Removing too much beneficial bacteria at once can lead to Mini-Cycles, explained above.

What does it mean when I have high Nitrates?

Nitrates, being the final product of the Cycle, build up over time and are predominantly removed through water changes. It is normal to have Nitrates above 5ppm, however Nitrates start to become fatal to sensitive fish at 20ppm and the majority of fish at 40ppm. Many aim for only letting Nitrates reach 20ppm and no higher. When Nitrates are higher than this, the causes may be:

- The bioload is too high to be controllable. This means that you may have too many fish producing waste, and with your current water change schedule the Nitrates continue to climb at a high rate. Reducing your stocking levels may be necessary if you do not wish to increase water change frequency/size.

- Your water changes are too infrequent or too small. Nitrates are reduced by the percentage of water changed (eg if Nitrates are 20ppm, and a 50% water change is performed, Nitrates will be cut by 50%, becoming 10ppm), and if not performed frequently enough or the water changes are not large enough the Nitrates may rise to toxic levels. 25% Weekly is often recommended as a water change schedule, however 50% weekly is more often required to keep Nitrates low.

- There has been a sudden increase in waste such as a fish's death and the Nitrates are spiking as a result of this.

- Overfeeding may contribute to high Nitrates

- Dying plants will create waste, eventually contributing to Nitrate levels.

-Mechanical media has not been cleaned recently.Your mechanical media will pick up debris and should be cleaned out on a regular basis. When debris is left to build up, it begins to break down and clog, and begins to feed excess Ammonia into the aquarium. Eventually this will start to cause an increase in Nitrates - in marine tanks, this is called a "Nitrate factory". Easily accessible mechanical media such as pre-filter sponges can be useful as they are easy to clean weekly, and thus less debris is left to break down into waste.

-Your tap water contains Nitrates. This can be common among those with rainwater, but also sometimes occurs from other water sources. It can be difficult to resolve this problem, however it is considered important as long-termexposure to high Nitrates can affect the longevity of your fish. Running your water through an initial filtration system such as a plant-filter or chemical filtration can reduce your Nitrates before they enter your tank. This can be as simple as a spare tank with only plants, or a barrel with a form of chemical filtration. RO (Reverse Osmosis) water can be used to dilute Nitrates, however this creates very soft, acidic water unless remineralizers are used.

If your water comes from a treatment plant and you are experiencing high Nitrates, it may be worth ringing your local council to figure out the source of the problem. 50mg/L or 50ppm is the maximum acceptable Nitrates for New Zealand waters.

Nitrates are best controlled through water changes, however planting (emersed and submerged) can be incredibly beneficial for reducing Nitrates. Some may also choose Anaerobic methods of removal such as Deep Sand Beds. Chemical media may also be used to remove Nitrates when the above methods are not sufficient, however reducing stocking levels is typically recommended instead of this as a long-term solution. Increasing tank size (thus the water volume) will also help to dilute the amount of Nitrates produced (assuming your stocking levels are the same).

What does it mean when my Nitrates are 0ppm?

Nitrates typically do not sit at 0ppm in the mature tank, and in the majority of cases this is a sign that there is something wrong. 0ppm Nitrates may be caused by:

- The Nitrate test is performed wrong. This is the most common reason for 0ppm Nitrates. API's test is the most common choice for testing Nitrates and differs in method to their other tests (eg Ammonia and Nitrites), so it requires that the instructions are followed exactly as given. This means that theBottle #2 andTest Tube are both shaken for the 30 seconds to 1 minute instructed (I like to say "until your arms fall off" to show how hard the bottles require shaking), and the test tube is then left for5 minutes before results are taken. If these are not performed correctly, the test will often read 0ppm Nitrates.

- The test kit is a dud, or is expired. If you suspect the test kit is inaccurate, it is often worth doing a Nitrate calibration (DIY methods may be found online) in order to test the accuracy of the test. Test kit lot numbers may be found on the bottle in order to search up whether the kit is expired or not.

- The tank is not cycled. In the beginning of the cycle, Nitrates are not present as they are still in the form of Ammonia or Nitrites. They will eventually be converted into Nitrates once the filter bacteria colonize the filter media and begin the Nitrification process.

- The tank has heavy planting with low stocking. This is typically not the case as few tanks achieve this, however it is definitely possible. For this to occur, the Nitrate consumption by plants has to be greater than or equal to the Nitrate production by fish and other inhabitants. This requires heavy planting (emersed plants will contribute to this also) and very low stocking levels, making it possible for those with High-Tech or Heavy-Planting setups, which often contain fast growing plants that are big Nitrate consumers.

How do I go about a filter upgrade?

Filter upgrades can be done in one of two ways in order to preserve your beneficial bacteria living on the media inside of them.

1. The new filter is run side-by-side the old filter. This is typically done for around 4 weeks, and allows for the beneficial bacteria to colonize the new filter, while the old filter continues to do its job until the new one is ready. If the old filter can still be used for a few weeks, this is often the preferable option.

2. The media is directly transferred into the new filter. For this the filter media must remain wet/damp and the transfer is done relatively quickly in order to keep the bacteria alive. If the old filter needs to be removed (eg is being used on a different tank, or is being sold) this may be the better option.

After the original filter is removed, it is often recommended to do a water change the day after just to prevent any spikes that may occur from dead bacteria.

Should I dechlorinate my water?

Whether you need to dechlorinate water depends on your water supply. For example, if you are on rainwater, you likely do not have to dechlorinate your water. However, it may be desirable to use a product such as Prime to detoxify any heavy metals that may be present. For those on the city's tap water, it may depend on your region and what water supply is used. This can be found out through Google and/or contacting your local water company. The majority of cities and towns in NZ receive chlorinated water.

Information for Christchurch chlorination levels can be found here.

A map for Wellington's chlorinated areas can be found here.

Some of Auckland's water plants treatments can be found here.

It is worth noting that while Chlorine dissipates when water ages, Chloramines do not "gas off" and remain in the water.

How do I change substrate/gravel/sand?

Good question! It's important to figure out whether you have to do this process slowly or not. Substrate quite often holds a large percentage of beneficial bacteria in the tank, meaning if you change too much at once you may be prone to an Ammonia spike. This is more likely if your filter size is too small or if you have a high bioload. A small tank with, for example, a large canister filter is unlikely to experience any problems, however a large tank with a Hang-on-Back filter may struggle when all of the substrate is changed. If you have a small filter, it may be necessary to change the substrate slowly to ensure you don't remove too much beneficial bacteria.

There are a few ways to go about actually changing the substrate:

- Remove the fish, plants, decoration etc and keep them in a temporary container such as a holding tank or polystyrene box. It's typically recommended to not wash down all the decorations at this point as they may carry some beneficial bacteria also. Then scoop all of the old substrate out (careful to not scratch it against the glass) and put the new substrate in. Note that it's typically recommended to wash the new substrate a few times as they often carry a lot of dust which will cloud the tank. Many people prefer to place the plants and decorations before filling it up with water (for ease of access), however it is up to you whether you do this or place them after filling the tank. This method is definitely preferable if you are laying down a "dirt" fertilizer such as Dalton's Aquatic Mix.

Note that there is no need to keep any of the old water as there is little to no bacteria living in the water column. However, you may wish to keep some of the water for acclimatization purposes.

- You can attempt to remove the substrate without emptying the tank. It may be easier to drain the tank about half way for this. Once you have done this, just scoop the new substrate in and let if fall down into place. While the first method can seem like a lot more work, this method is a bit "fiddly" and can be a bit more messy. Fish may also find it stressful as this may take a while, and changing substrate with fish in is typically not recommended for tanks with sand beds that may contain trapped gasses and anaerobic bacteria. This may, however, be preferable if you want to change the substrate over time.

How do I acclimatize fish?

This is very much down to personal preference, and can the amount of care you take can depend on the source of the fish and whether you intend on quarantining it. We strongly recommend quarantining fish when possible for just over 30-32 days to prevent introducing disease into your community aquarium (especially for those with large collections and/or expensive fish). While we will list several methods, the first is recommended (however is not always possible).

- Drip acclimation. This involves taking the fish out of its bag and placing it into a bucket or other container, then using an air tube (for slow flow) from the new tank into the bucket. Once the bucket fills up, the fish is netted and put into the new tank. This allows the fish to acclimatize to the new water without transferring too much of the old water into the tank. This prevents the chance of pathogens entering the tank. Drip acclimation is absolutely preferable for sensitive fish such as Otocinclus which need to be acclimatized slowly to the new water. This may not be possible however for very large fish, or puffers which cannot leave the water (thus a cup of water is preferred for transfer rather than exposing them to air via a net).

- Opening the bag and slowly dipping it into the water, lifting it (for the water to mix) and then dipping it again. This is quicker than drip acclimation and as the old water enters the tank it has a chance of introducing more pathogens into the tank. However drip acclimation may not be suitable in an emergency and this may be the preferable method. When getting fish from a trusted source (such as a friend, we absolutely recommend quarantining with fish from any pet store) this may be used and quarantine may be avoided, however the risk is still there.

We do not recommend dropping the fish straight into the tank. There are many disadvantages and risks when doing this and it simply better to be safe than sorry. When bought from the same area, the water supply may be the same and water conditions may be similar, however fish from other parts of the country may be from very different conditions to your aquarium (for example, some areas are on very Alkaline water, while others are on very Acidic water). Certain suppliers may also use buffering agents to significantly change their water conditions. Fish can also struggle to acclimatize to different Nitrate levels (from low to high) and this can lead to a quick death.

How do I clean my hands before putting them in the tank?

There are a lot of difference answers to this question, and it mostly depends on personal preference. Many feel that soap residue is likely to be more dangerous than what is typically on your hands, so the general recommendation is to rinse, rinse and rinse in water as hot as possible.

However, when going between quarantine tanks, this is a bit more difficult as hot water won't necessarily stop the spread of aquatic diseases. In this case, it's best to go from a "clean" work area to a "dirty" one - for example, it is preferred to clean and feed the healthy fish tanks, and to then clean and feed the diseased tanks. Another thing to help would be to have long periods in between going from tank to tank, to allow your hands to completely dry out to create an environment where aquatic diseases cannot survive.

Using accessories such as long tweezers for planting and nets for catching fish can help to reduce the amount of time that your hands enter the tank. Some people also like to use gloves designed for animal or veterinary use, especially on saltwater tanks where inhabitants may produce toxins or strings or if you possess any open wounds.

Sometimes it may be considered necessary to wash your hands before placing them in the tank - just be sure to rinse them thoroughly to remove as much residue as possible.

As for washing your hands after they have been in the tank - this is definitely preferable! There are several zoonoticdiseases that fish may have that can transfer to humans - whilst this is very rare, it is a possibility and it may be better to be safe than sorry.

How do I sterilize tanks and equipment?

There are several reasons why you might want to sterilize equipment and tanks (such as disease, or an introduced contaminant), and there are several ways you can do so. Usually which option you choose simply depends on your personal preference and what supplies are easiest to find.

1. Chlorine Bleach: This is often a good option due to the ability to remove bleach using a dechlorinator. However it's worth remembering that bleach is very fatal to living organisms and traces of bleach should be completely removed before using equipment or tanks with fish again. Make sure to only use "pure" bleach, and not bleaches containing other detergents/soaps.

A common recommendation is to use 1 part bleach to 9-19 parts water. Allow equipment or tanks to soak for anywhere between 15 minutes to an hour, then rinse thoroughly. After this is a good time to soak items in water or run the aquarium and add dechlorinator to help remove any excess residue.

2. Potassium Permanganate: Also known as KMnO4, Potassium Permanganate is often used for sterilization and is known for its ability to kill living organisms. It is a strong oxidizer and stains easily, so it's recommended to use gloves and to keep it away from anything flammable. One advantage of KMnO4 is that it creates a bright pink solution, which allows you to have a slight idea of its presence and concentration.

One recommended method is to use 10mg of KMnO4 crystals to 1 litre of water or until the water is a medium to dark purple, and to soak equipment and tanks for 1-24 hours. As it oxidises quickly with exposure to light and air, little residue should be left, however it is preferable to rinse equipment as thoroughly as possible. This solution can also be used to sterilize plants in dips for 1-10 minutes. Potassium Permanganate will deactivate quickly in high organic matter, so more may be required if the tank or equipment contain high amounts of waste/debris.

One disadvantage is that KMnO4 can be a bit hard to source - your local pharmacy or gardening store may have some, however. It may not look like much, but a few crystals will easily stain water a bright pink colour.

3. Salt: A strong salt solution can be used to sterilize tanks and equipment however this isn't necessarily as effective as the above two methods. However, salt residue is less toxic than the above.

4. Vinegar: A vinegar solution can be useful for cleaning equipment and tank glass and is very effective at removing calcium deposits.

5. Boiling or Baking: This method is only practical for some applications such as small pieces of driftwood. There is often concern around boiling or baking rocks and we personally recommend against doing so - it is better to be "safe than sorry" when it comes to exploding rocks. Driftwood can be boiled or baked, however baking driftwood can cause quite the smell. The amount of time needed is down to personal preference, however 1-15 minutes may be a good start.

How do I prepare the fish tanks for flea-bombing my house?

This question comes upa lot, and fortunately it's one where the procedure is standard and most answers to it are similar (we fishkeepers are known for our disagreements!).

There are threeimportant things toremember when flea-bombing the house when you have fish tanks:

- Make sure to cover the tank as much as possible. Some use towels and duvets, most use plastics - a plastic garbage bag duct-taped around the tank is often a good option. If it's the middle of winter, some towels on top may be desired to help keep the heat in for the few hours.

- Make sure to haveall fish tank equipment turned off. This is for two reasons: 1. The instructions on the can will list to turn off anything plugged in. This is to prevent sparks and electrical hazards. 2. Filters and air pumps will otherwise draw in the air (this is toxic while the gas dissipates) which will kill fish if it diffuses in the water.

- Make sure filter media remains wet during this time. Hang-On-Back filters often lose the water in them when turned off, so you may need to place the filter media in a sealed plastic bag or a bucket outside until it's safe to turn the filter back on.

Other than that, you're good to go. It may be preferable to do a water change and add an Ammonia detoxifier shortly afterwards, as like during a power cut, the beneficial bacteria in your filters will have become starved of oxygen during the process, so it's important to help prevent an Ammonia spike when the filters are back up and running.

Can I use shells in my tank?

Safety-wise, shells are perfectly safe for your tank. However, shells increase your water's carbonate hardness (KH) and thus your pH. Many fish available are soft-water fish that prefer acidic environments. This means that shells may be preferable for, for example, African cichlids, certain puffers, Central-American livebearers and other alkaline/hard-water fish. However, they may have adverse effects on fish such as Bettas/Gourami, American cichlids, Tetras and other acidic/soft-water fish.

Can I use superglue in my tank?

Sure can! Many people use superglue for applications such as on corals, or gluing plants on to rocks. Just make sure that the glue has dried properly for the recommended amount of time on the packet before placing it in the tank.

Can Guppies live in cold water conditions?

Unfortunately New Zealand's climate is often considered too cold for Guppies and other subtropical species. Guppies tend to prefer waters over 18° Celsius. In reduced water temperatures, fish become prone to stress and disease and their bodies slow down dramatically.

What do Plecos eat?

"Pleco" is quite a big term, meaning fish from the large Loricariidae family. In this family of Catfishes alone there are over 680 species, ranging from a 3cm in size to 50cm! So the question is, what Pleco are you referring to? In general, Bristlenoses and large common plecos are algae grazers, while "fancy" plecos often prefer a slightly meatier diet. Royal plecos are known for their need for driftwood, and they can decimate a large piece of wood in a short amount of time. It's important to research your Pleco species in order to know exactly what they prefer to eat.

It's important to note that while Bristlenoses and Common Plecos are algae grazers, they need a supplement of either herbivorous pellet foods and/or fresh green vegetables (such as Zucchini). There is also debate around whether Bristlenoses require driftwood, however driftwood is recommended nevertheless for hiding places and surface area for algae to grown on.

How do I euthanize fish?

This article may be of some help -http://fishwise.co.nz/index.php/articles/item/31-humane-fish-euthanasia

How many fish are needed for a school or shoal?

For gregarious or shoaling fish, we recommend a bare minimum of 6, preferably 8. For strictly shoaling fish, a minimum of 8, preferably 10, is recommended. Providing larger numbers has a multitude of advantages, including increasing lifespan and reducing stress within the fish. Bigger groups of fish show fascinating behaviours and are considered more entertaining to view. In fact, many people find positive differences when upgrading group numbers from 10 to 20-40, and often recommend as many fish in a group as possible.

Fish have often come from environments in which they group in the hundreds and thousands, so providing a bare minimum of 6-10 is the least we can do to provide a safe and comfortable environment for our fish.

What is the difference between a shoal and a school?

Although many use these terms interchangeably, a Schooling fish is one that moves in unison with the conspecifics around it, while a Shoaling fish is one that simply lives with conspecifics for social, safety or other beneficial reasons.

For example, many loaches and some tetras are shoaling fish and may move about together, however they may also act alone and can even stop shoaling all together. When fish do this, it is usually due to a feeling of safety, as numbers are large enough to not have to worry about predators - tight shoaling of these fish might even indicate a sense of insecurity of their environment or numbers.

However, smaller species, such as some rasbora, often move in unison and rarely act on their own. These fish are often considered "tight shoalers" or schoolers, and group numbers are very important to tight shoalers to provide a sense of safety and to reduce stress.

Should I cook prawn before feeding it?

Nope, prawn and shrimp need to be fed raw. Cooked meats can be dangerous for fish.

How often should I feed my fish?

This depends on a few different variables.

The first variable is the age of the fish - younger fish will need more frequent feedings than adult fish. Fry are often fed anywhere between two to six times a day, whereas an adult fish often only needs feeding once every 1-2 days.

The second variable is the size of the fish - a small Tetra may appreciate once to twice daily feedings, whereas a fully grown Arowana may only need to be fed every second day.

The third variable is the fish's diet - aherbivorous fish which grazes throughout the day will often grow best on several smaller feedings, whereas a carnivorous fish that hunts may only catch a couple of meals in a week.

For most community fish, once daily feedings are often all that's needed. For young growing fish, you may wish to feed them twice a day to ensure they get enough energy to grow and to do their regular fishy things, however for most adult fish, twice daily feedings is often more than necessary. Signs of overfeeding are leftover food, excess snails and algae, and bloat. Underfeeding may present skinny fish, or slow growth.

It's worth noting that some people believe in what are called "fasting days". This is done around once or twice a week and is when the fish are not fed for the day. It is believed this may help to allow the fish to process any excess food in their systems to prevent bloat, and that in the wild many fish may even go several weeks without food. It is important, however, to not fast very young fish, which will require several feedings throughout the day.

Can I feed my fish meat?

We strongly recommend against feeding the meat of mammals for the majority of fish as they contain fats that fish cannot process and can lead to bloat - especially herbivorous-based fish such as Malawi cichlids. Most seafoods are safe to feed, however it is recommended to avoid feeding fish cooked or seasoned foods.

Why are my fish not growing?

Many different factors can cause a lack of growth, or stunting, in fish. These factors can be both internal (due to the fish itself), or external (due to the fish's environment).

Internalfactors could include:

- Genetics - the genetic "quality" of some fish can be lessened to due inbreeding, or simply due natural changes.

- Sex can cause males to be larger than females, or vice-versa.

- Most species, such as catfish, often grow uniformly in size. However some, such as Siamese Fighters, can be seen to grow at different rates and some may be considered "runts". In this case, breeders will often choose the "middle-ground" fish in terms of their growth rate for producing future offspring, believing that lifespan and health tends to be better in those with "average" growth and size.

Externalfactors are many, but may include:

- Competition for resources. With scarce feeding when young, fish may have to compete for food. Those who access more food will grow better, while those who lack food will grow more slowly.

- Lack of food. Young fish, especially fry, may need multiple feedings during the day. Herbivorous fry may have more luck feeding on the natural flora and fauna growing in the tank, however Carnivorous fry rely on multiple feedings per day for efficient and healthy growth.

- Poor food quality. Food that is not designed specifically for the fish it is feeding - such as having an imbalance of proteins and carbohydrates - will mean that the fish cannot properly digest the food it is given, resulting in poor growth. Poor quality fish food can also contain a large portion of "fillers" which may provide extra proteins and carbohydrates, but may not actually be digestible to fish.

- Poor water quality has a significant impact on growth. Water which is not at the optimal range for young fish, such as having an acidophilefish in a basicenvironment, can decrease growth as extra energy is being put into working against an incorrect environment.

It is also believed that while measurable water quality may be adequate, fish excrete pheromones which control their growth. When few water changes are performed, some feel these pheromones build up, increasing the stunting inits inhabitants.

- Tanks which are too small can cause stunting as a response to their environment. This kind of stunting is often seen in Goldfish kept in bowls or small tanks, and can be seen visually with bent spines, humped heads, and eye size.

- As with humans, stress is a major factor in decreased growth and health. Like a fish in a less-than-optimal pH, a stressed fish is putting extra energy into working against its stressor. Stress can be caused by many different things, including all of those above, along with poor stocking choices such as having boisterous fish with sensitive fish, or having a predatory fish in with its prey species. Encountering diseases, such asrecurrent parasitic infections (internal parasites or gill infections being two that are often left untreated), will also be significant source of stress.

As you can see above, there are many different factors affecting the growth and health of your fish, and it can certainly feel like a lot of things to consider. However, with a healthy, clean, and stress-free environment, you will likely see fast and efficient growth in your fish.